Four Theories Of The Press

Written by SherKhan

In the Four Theories of the Press, Sibert, Peterson and Schramm assert that the press is always a reflection of the social and political configuration within which it operates. As they exist in free and democratic nations, the North American press then, espouses Liberal ideas and principles. These principles that comprise two major theories of study, the Social Responsibility and Libertarian theory, are the basis upon which the free press should and does run in a democratic society. It is essential to examine these theories, noting their obvious similarities and differences, and through this form of Socratic analysis, come to a conclusion as to not which theory is 'better' per se, but which holds most true to its ideals and to its assurances to society. Both theories have many similarities, and as such, one is seemingly an outgrowth of the other. However in order to properly determine the relationship between the two and their association to the press, in depth examination proves essential. The authors assert that society - and therefore the press- is based upon certain assumptions regarding the nature of human beings and the relationship of these being to the state. As such, in comparing the Libertarian and Social Responsibility theory, four postulates are asserted in regards to each theory: i) the nature of man; ii) the nature of society and the state; iii) the relation of man to the state; iv) the nature of knowledge and truth.

The Libertarian theory truly began to take shape as a result an assortment of complex factors. Though its early beginnings began in the 15th Century with the onset of geographic discoveries, it flourished in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries with the development of the natural sciences and other ideas that sprang from the Enlightenment. As the sciences became accepted, and the assertion of scientific rationality validated, it also marked the beginning of the empowerment of common men, as they too could have access to knowledge and truth. On the basis of scientific method, experiments could be carried out, hypotheses and observations could be made and verified through the replication of that experiment. As such, truth and knowledge could be deduced through reason and the scientific method. The significance of this cannot be understated. This was a far cry from Plato's assertion that truth could only be found by the Philosophers (i.e. those who had the capacity for such knowledge), and far removed too from the socio-political epoch that continued to reign unchallenged until the 17th to 18th centuries. This marked a break from the Authoritarian system of society in that no longer was the truth unattainable by common men. No longer did knowledge itself need to be handed down from a higher authority from which both understanding and truth were traditionally acquired. From these origins of the rejection of authority came the ideas that formed the postulates of the Libertarian theory. The first assumption in this theory is that man is a rational being, who possess the faculties necessary in discovering the truth, goodness etc, and the right to pursue the truth is an inherent right. The Libertarian theory asserts that man is superior to other earthly creatures because of his 'uniqueness', which is essentially the ability to learn and rationalize, and as such man is the basic unit of civilization. Not only is it sustained by him, but so too advanced by him. So forms the second postulate, wherein the nature of state and society is one where the ultimate the goal of both is to ensure that the fulfillment of the individual and the realization of his capabilities are attained. Thus, the state exists to provide the infrastructure within which the individual may be able to achieve this, and exists for only this. Exponents of the libertarian theory are weary of government and society in general, who they claim if not watched carefully, can claim itself to be higher than the individual and thus work in order to produce its own ends. Should a state engage in such behaviour, or fail to assist man in coming into self-realization, that should be either abolished or drastically modified, as no other entity takes precedence over the individual. This idea shaped by Locke was based on his assertion that the government was a privileged institution whose guardianship and authority of state power could be removed if and when the people extracted their support. This is also evident in the mind of Mill, the only instance in which state restrictions on an individual could be tolerated is if that person was harming another, or his concept of negative freedom, (or freedom from). In no other instance should governmental interference be allowed, as it takes away from individuals that which they can achieve for themselves, thus disengages them from relying upon their own faculties, and from gaining experience and knowledge. The nature of truth and knowledge in the Libertarian theory is grounded in the same rhetoric as early Christian tenet in that both assert that man inherently (God-given or otherwise) possessed the power to discover the truth, the reason necessary to distinguish right and wrong, etc.

In order to be able to actually use this reason, writers such as John Milton said that individuals must have access to what is (in the present day Libertarian theory) called the 'free marketplace of ideas'. This is one of the most important functions that the mass media must fulfill according to this theory. That is, media serves to provide a forum in which people can exchange ideas, and through such Socratic dialogue, can arrive at the truth. In addition to providing a marketplace of ideas, all ideas of men should be included, for as J.S. Mill wrote, to suppress any idea, not matter how unlikely it may be, would mean that one is potentially suppressing the truth. Even if it is not the truth, suppressing objections could hinder in the possibility of actually attaining, or maintaining the strength of the truth. Those who support the Libertarian support this as well, and believe that man possess the necessary capacity to sift through this information thus engaging in the 'self-righting process'- that is using reason and what they know to determine if the information or ideas presented is true or false, good or bad, and so on until they come to conclusion. As man has the ability to do this, they need not be 'told' by a higher authority and so the press should remain free from governmental ties, neither supported nor affiliated with it. This separation also exists as a result of another function of the press, which is to serve as a 'check' on government, and allows media the prestigious unofficial title, the Fourth Power of the State. In the first instances of the press which operated under the Authoritarian theory, bulletins and circulars were commissioned and paid for by the state. With the onset of capitalism people of trade and commerce insisted upon less state interference in order to maximize profits. Power structures began to change, as society moved from the rigidity of the feudal system to mercantilism and finally to new capitalist ventures which created an emerging middle class. The press and concurrently the media were now controlled by private enterprises, backed by capitalism and the Libertarian theory. As such, another essential function of the media in this system is advertising sales, which is not only economically necessary, but allows the media to ensure financial autonomy, thus maintain its goals of objective reporting (i.e. the separation of opinion and fact in reporting). The issue of such funding coupled with the extreme capitalist nature of this system, begs the question: is the Libertarian theory trading one authoritarian system to another? On the one hand, there is a system of the press that is ruled by monarchs and statesmen, and on the other, a system 'ruled' by businessmen and media conglomerates, who make available little in terms of fulfilling the function of providing a 'free marketplace of ideas'. As a result of this being a capitalist private

This is one of the fears that caused the supposed outgrowth of this- or the Social Responsibility theory. This theory, while maintaining the same objectives as the Libertarian, does not believe that under the Libertarian theory that these goals can be (or have been) achieved to their fullest potential. The Social Responsibility theory rose out of the mass media community itself who post World War II were concerned by the function prescribed versus the actual role that the media had taken. Starting with the Hutchin's Commission on Freedom of the Press, the Social Responsibility theory began to take root, and to bring to the forefront the issue of moral responsibility of the press, which one will encounter nowhere when looking at the Libertarian theory. The press' responsibility (as opposed to performing only functions), is perhaps due to its initial premise in regards to the nature of man' Although this theory concedes that man is indeed a rational being, it denies that man actively and naturally seeks out the truth. Man is seen here as being passive and lethargic, unwilling to use his reason, instead choosing acceptance of that which he is told. As such, there is a necessity for those who have an awareness to spur him into utilizing his reason, which he will forego to achieve his more direct wants. They call for an initiative of positive freedom, or freedom for, by which human beings can actually develop their ideas via the self-righting process, but also instils a sense of duty to think, and exercise responsibility toward the receptive public. As such, the Social Responsibility theory sees negative freedom as ineffective, as it in no way guarantees people the provision of a means of developing themselves. As private enterprises, the press operates to sustain itself, and maintain profitability by satisfying the goals of businesses. The Social Responsibility theory, though it does not reject capitalism, critiques the Libertarian theory for abandoning its goals in the face of its own economic ends, submitting to these businesses allowing the conditions necessary for advertisers to control or influence editorial principles, trampling on the notion of free objective reporting. In light of this, the Social Responsibility theory asserts the public's right to access information and be a part of the free marketplace of ideas, as described by Milton, even if it requires communal or state intervention. The Social Responsibility theory also finds fault in the implementation in the Libertarian system of their shared objectives. The Responsibility theory also sees the functions of the media as being those of entertainment, an educational tool, a check on government, and maintaining self-sufficiency via advertising sales to be free from external demands. However, taking the latter as an example, the Social Responsibility theorists criticize the Libertarian interpretation in this regard due to the fact that media tends to put emphasis on economics over educational and informative value. Both the Libertarian and Social Responsibility theory has its own presuppositions regarding the nature of man, the nature of society and state, the relationship of man to the state, and truth and knowledge. Both abandoned the ideas of coveting knowledge as in the Authoritarian system, and instead accept scientific and Socratic methods to arrive at a truth that is attainable by rational man. Although, the Social Responsibility theory sees man as reluctant participant in seeking out knowledge and truth, it concedes to the objectives as stated in the Libertarian theory, but does not hesitate to point out the inadequacy that relying upon such methods of implementation, and regulating solely by forces such as the self-righting process is indeed ineffective. In spite of this, the Libertarian theory remains strong where freedom reigns and democracy thrives, but the question that needs to be asked is: do we really want to live within such a private, capitalist system of mass media, as it provides no assurances of moral obligations to the public which it serves, and rejects all ideas regarding intervention to achieve this? After all, in the infamous words of words of William Hamilton, 'A newspaper is a private enterprise that owing nothing whatever to the public, which grants it no franchise' It is therefore affected with no public interest. It is emphatically the property of the owner, who is selling a manufactured produced at his own risk........

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